Đề thi, bài tập trắc nghiệm online Khoa học thần kinh và hành vi – Đề 11

Neuroethics is an interdisciplinary field that addresses the ethical, legal, and societal implications of neuroscience. It explores the ethical questions arising from advances in brain research and neurotechnologies, including issues related to privacy, autonomy, responsibility, and the potential for misuse of neuroscientific knowledge.

The cerebellum, located at the back of the brain, plays a crucial role in motor control, coordination, and balance. It receives input from sensory systems and other parts of the brain to fine-tune movements and maintain posture.

The parietal lobe is primarily responsible for processing sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure. It is also crucial for spatial awareness, navigation, and attention. Damage to the parietal lobe can lead to deficits in these functions, such as impaired tactile sensation, difficulty with spatial orientation, and neglect syndromes.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in the brain's reward system. It is released in response to pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors that lead to those experiences. This makes dopamine central to the development and maintenance of addiction.

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. They are often subconscious and can lead to distortions in perception, memory, reasoning, and decision-making, impacting behavior in predictable ways.

The resting membrane potential of a neuron is typically around -70 mV. This negative charge is maintained by the unequal distribution of ions across the neuronal membrane, primarily due to the sodium-potassium pump and the selective permeability of the membrane to different ions.

Oligodendrocytes are glial cells in the central nervous system that are responsible for producing myelin. Myelin is a fatty substance that wraps around axons, acting as an insulator and speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses. In the peripheral nervous system, Schwann cells perform a similar function.

The corpus callosum is a large band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Its primary function is to allow communication and transfer of information between these two hemispheres, enabling integrated brain function.

The placebo effect is a beneficial effect produced by a placebo drug or treatment, which cannot be attributed to the placebo itself, and must therefore be ascribed to the patient's expectations and beliefs in the treatment. It highlights the powerful influence of psychological factors on physiological outcomes.

Mirror neurons are a class of neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by another. They are thought to play a key role in understanding actions, imitation, empathy, and social cognition.

Glial cells (glia) perform various supportive functions in the nervous system, including providing nutrients, insulation (myelin), and waste removal. However, the primary function of transmitting action potentials (electrical signals) is exclusive to neurons, not glial cells.

The hypothalamus serves as a crucial link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It controls the pituitary gland, often referred to as the 'master gland', by releasing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the pituitary's hormone secretion. Through the pituitary gland, the hypothalamus indirectly influences many other endocrine glands.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. It reduces neuronal excitability by hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic neuron, thus playing a critical role in calming neural activity and reducing anxiety.

Melatonin is a hormone primarily produced by the pineal gland and is often referred to as the 'sleep hormone'. Its secretion is influenced by light exposure, with levels increasing in darkness and decreasing in light. Melatonin helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle and promotes sleepiness.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid and often bizarre dreams, and muscle atonia (muscle paralysis to prevent acting out dreams). Brain activity during REM sleep is similar to wakefulness, despite the body being paralyzed.

Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp. Magnetoencephalography (MEG) also measures brain activity, but it detects the weak magnetic fields generated by the electrical currents in neurons. Both are non-invasive techniques with high temporal resolution, but MEG is more sensitive to activity in certain brain regions and less distorted by the skull and scalp than EEG.

Wernicke's area, located in the temporal lobe, is essential for language comprehension. Damage to this area, known as Wernicke's aphasia (or receptive aphasia), results in difficulties in understanding spoken and written language. Speech may be fluent but often nonsensical.

Broca's area, located in the frontal lobe, is crucial for speech production. Damage to this area, known as Broca's aphasia (or expressive aphasia), leads to difficulties in producing fluent and grammatically correct speech, although comprehension is generally preserved.

A synapse is the point of communication between two neurons. It is a specialized junction where the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron communicates with the dendrite or cell body of a postsynaptic neuron, typically through the release of neurotransmitters.

The depolarization phase of an action potential is primarily caused by the rapid influx of sodium ions (Na+) into the neuron. Voltage-gated sodium channels open in response to depolarization, allowing Na+ to rush into the cell, making the membrane potential more positive.

The hippocampus is a key brain structure for the formation of new episodic memories (memories of events). Damage to the hippocampus often results in anterograde amnesia, the inability to form new memories, while older memories might remain intact.

Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity, refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This can occur in response to learning, experience, or injury, allowing the brain to adapt and change its structure and function.

The amygdala is a brain structure central to the processing of emotions, particularly fear, anxiety, and aggression. It plays a significant role in emotional learning and the formation of emotional memories.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) is a neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, specifically the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal. Increased neural activity leads to increased blood flow to that area, which fMRI can detect.

The prefrontal cortex, located at the front of the brain, is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions known as executive functions. These include planning, decision-making, working memory, impulse control, and abstract thinking, all of which are essential for goal-directed behavior.

Neurons are specialized cells that are the fundamental units of the nervous system. Their primary function is to transmit information in the form of electrical and chemical signals, enabling communication throughout the body and brain.

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response, preparing the body to react to stressful or dangerous situations. It increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and redirects blood flow to muscles, among other physiological changes, to enhance survival in threatening scenarios.

Stage 3 sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep or deep sleep, is characterized by slow-wave activity (delta waves) on an EEG. It is the deepest stage of non-REM sleep, and it is crucial for physical restoration and memory consolidation.

The basal ganglia are a group of subcortical structures that play a vital role in motor control, particularly in initiating and inhibiting movements, as well as in procedural learning (learning skills and habits). Disorders of the basal ganglia, such as Parkinson's disease, often manifest as movement problems.

Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It plays a critical role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. Excessive glutamate activity, however, can be excitotoxic and harmful to neurons.